We’ve been thinking about the risen Jesus in Paul as ghost sightings. The concept of ghosts (phantasma in Greek) was well-known in the ancient world. In the gospels, when Jesus walked on water (Matthew 14:26) and when He appeared after His resurrection (Luke 24:37-39), the disciples initially panicked and thought they were seeing a ghost. Jesus corrected them by inviting them to touch His physical body, proving He was not a disembodied spirit. But what about earlier with Paul?

The concept of ghosts or apparitions (Greek phantasma or pneuma) was widespread in the ancient Mediterranean world, including among Greeks, Romans, and Jews of the first century. The disciples’ reactions reflect that cultural backdrop, and Jesus’ responses in the gospels emphasize the physical reality of his presence.

I’ve been thinking about how Jesus’ unjust death and dishonorable burial as a paradigmatic good, sinless man chosen by God may have prompted his followers to expect post-mortem visitations from his ghost – a superstition prevalent in the ancient world. Such expectations may have unconsciously primed them to interpret anything as an encounter with Jesus: a glance of someone in a crowd, an unusual celestial event, etc. If scholars like Tabor and Carrier are right that the first followers thought Jesus left his body of dust behind for a new resurrection body reported by Paul, this would explain the trajectory in the gospels from an apotheosis empty tomb in Mark to an ever-more physical risen Jesus in later gospels. Such a conception of the body being left behind would be more in line with the ancient superstition regarding ghosts, as we saw in the first post with the Stoic philosopher Athenodorus Cananites (c. 74 BC – 7 AD).

Ancient Beliefs in Ghosts

• Greek context: Phantasma referred to apparitions, shades of the dead (psyche, eidolon, or skia), or spectral figures. In Homer’s Odyssey, Odysseus summons shades from the underworld. Ghosts could appear as guides, warners, or restless spirits (especially if proper burial rites were neglected). They were often associated with fear, especially at night or over water, but not always purely terrifying—some were revered.
• Jewish/First-century context: Beliefs varied. Some traditions allowed for spirits of the dead, demons (shedim), or nocturnal apparitions. Water (like the Sea of Galilee) at night was sometimes linked to dangerous spirits. Rabbinic and Second Temple texts (e.g., Tobit) mention evil spirits, and popular lore included apparitions. However, mainstream views emphasized the dead resting in Sheol or awaiting resurrection, with necromancy forbidden (as in Saul and the Witch of Endor). The disciples’ panic fits a world where disembodied spirits were a live possibility.

The Biblical Incidents

• Walking on Water (Matthew 14:22-33; also Mark 6:45-52): In the fourth watch of the night (roughly 3-6 a.m.), during a storm, the disciples see Jesus approaching on the water and cry out, “It is a ghost [phantasma]!” They were exhausted, terrified by the conditions, and had no expectation of seeing him there. Jesus reassures them: “Take courage! It is I. Do not be afraid.” Peter briefly walks toward him, showing it’s no mere vision.
• Post-Resurrection (Luke 24:36-43): Jesus suddenly appears among the disciples in a locked room. They are “startled and frightened,” thinking they see a pneuma (spirit/ghost). Jesus directly addresses this:

“Why are you troubled, and why do doubts arise in your hearts? See my hands and my feet, that it is I myself. Touch me and see, for a spirit does not have flesh and bones as you see that I have.”

He shows his wounds, invites touch, and eats broiled fish to prove his bodily reality. This counters any idea of a purely spiritual or illusory appearance.

These moments highlight a key Christian theological point in the gospels: the resurrection is bodily, not ghostly or docetic (mere appearance). Jesus has a transformed but continuous physical body—tangible, with wounds, capable of eating—yet unbound by normal limitations (e.g., appearing suddenly). This distinguishes it from ancient ghost lore, where spirits typically lacked solid flesh and bones.

The accounts use the disciples’ initial misunderstanding to underscore the miracle and reality of what they’re witnessing. It’s a relatable human response in a world steeped in supernatural expectations.

Ancient Jewish writings mention ghosts and spirits of the dead, most famously in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) and later in the Talmud. However, Jewish law strictly forbade trying to contact them, which suggests belief in ghosts was widespread. The risen Jesus in Paul seems to fit right in this category with his spirit body (pneumatikos) allowing him to simultaneously possess all those who welcome him (Christ in You/Mind of Christ).  Texts like Deuteronomy 18:10-11 and Leviticus 19:31 explicitly forbid consulting mediums, spiritists, or attempting to contact the dead. The Bible warns that engaging in these practices opens people up to dangerous, malicious spiritual influences

Paul frequently speaks of Christ indwelling believers (or related ideas like “Christ in you,” “Christ lives in me,” and “the mind of Christ”) in his undisputed letters, while by contrast the Gospel of John (and other Gospels to a lesser extent) emphasizes the Holy Spirit’s indwelling and ongoing role as the Paraclete/Helper who continues Jesus’ presence and work. The Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke) do not speak of Jesus literally indwelling believers in the way Paul does.

There are many ancient stories and cultural traditions involving possession by benevolent or divine spirits/gods that aid, inspire, guide, or empower people. This concept—often called divine possession, enthusiasmos (being “filled with a god”), or theolepsy—was widespread and frequently viewed positively, contrasting with harmful demonic possession. It was seen as a transformative or beneficial state granting prophecy, artistic inspiration, healing, strength, or protection.

In other words, Paul essentially taught people how to communicate with and be possessed by the spirit of the dead Jesus.  This is probably why there are notable portrayal similarities and parallels drawn between the Apostle Paul and Simon Magus (the magician), primarily in early Christian polemics, scholarly analysis (especially 19th-century Tübingen School), and certain theological ideas—though mainstream Christian tradition treats them as distinct figures.

In the Pseudo-Clementine Homilies and Recognitions (likely reflecting Ebionite/Jewish-Christian views hostile to Paul), Simon Magus debates and is opposed by Peter. Scholars like Ferdinand Christian Baur (Tübingen School) argued that Simon often serves as a veiled caricature or proxy for Paul:

• Simon claims authority via post-resurrection visions of the Lord (paralleling Paul’s Damascus road vision and claims in Galatians that his gospel came by revelation, not from men).
• Simon preaches a gospel to Gentiles that downplays or reinterprets the Jewish law, positioning himself as an apostle independent of the Jerusalem circle.
• Peter follows and corrects Simon’s errors among the Gentiles, mirroring tensions in Paul’s letters (e.g., Galatians 2, the Antioch incident with Cephas/Peter) and Jewish-Christian critiques of Paul’s law-free mission.
• Other shared motifs: Both are portrayed as going to Gentiles, working wonders (or accused of sorcery), facing accusations of being deceivers/false apostles, and claiming special power/authority.

Some radical critics (e.g., Hermann Detering, Robert M. Price) have gone further, suggesting historical identification or that the Acts 8 story splits or reframes elements of Paul’s controversial career to harmonize church history.

Like with Simon Magus tried to buy the power to give the Holy Spirit by offering money to the Apostle Peter, Paul promised a collection during a key meeting in Jerusalem but faced delays, opposition, and dangers while gathering it. When he finally delivered it years later, it was reportedly met with suspicion or rejection (as potentially “unclean” money from law-free Gentiles).

Simon Magus is strongly associated with sorcery involving spirits, daemons, familiars, necromancy-like practices, and related occult arts. These elements expand far beyond the brief biblical account in Acts 8, where he is simply described as a sorcerer (“magus”) who “bewitched” people with magic.

Key Associations in Legends and Patristic Accounts

• Familiar spirit from a boy’s soul: Multiple sources (e.g., Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions and Homilies) describe Simon conjuring the soul of a “unsullied” boy who was violently slain. He separated the soul from the body through “unutterable adjurations” (invocations) and used it as a servant or familiar spirit for his wonders. He reportedly kept an image or picture of the boy in his bedroom as proof and relied on it (or a daemon responding to invocations) for magic. This is presented as a form of necromancy or spirit manipulation.
• Daemons and demonic assistance: He is said to work magic “by means of daemons” (evil spirits). Legends claim his famous flight/levitation (e.g., in the Roman Forum before Nero) was powered by demons or a chariot drawn by them. Peter’s prayers cause him to fall.
• Spectres, shadows, and souls of the dead: In the Homilies, he makes spectres appear in public places, causes statues to move, and has “shadows go before him which he says are souls of the dead.” He animates statues and performs other illusions tied to spirit control.
• Broader magical feats: Traditions attribute to him abilities like shape-shifting, invisibility, passing through fire or solid objects, animating objects, creating temporary bodies (e.g., a boy from air turned to flesh), opening locks, and more—often enabled by spirits or incantations. His followers (Simonian sect) were accused of using exorcisms, incantations, love philtres, “familiars,” “dream-senders,” and other spirit-related arts.

These stories come primarily from 2nd–4th century sources like Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, and the apocryphal Acts of Peter and Pseudo-Clementines. They portray Simon as the archetypal sorcerer and “father of heresies,” contrasting his demonic magic with apostolic miracles.

The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh)

The most prominent ghost story in the Bible occurs in 1 Samuel 28.

• The Witch of Endor: King Saul visits a medium (ba’alat ov) in disguise to conjure the dead prophet Samuel.
• The Apparition: The medium sees an old man wrapped in a cloak rising from the earth (elohim). Samuel’s spirit speaks to Saul and accurately predicts his doom in the upcoming battle.
• Prohibitions: The Torah repeatedly outlaws necromancy and consulting ghosts. Verses in Leviticus 19:31 and Deuteronomy 18:10-11 command Israelites not to turn to mediums or call up the dead.
• Whispering Shades: Isaiah 8:19 and 29:4 reference spirits of the dead that “chirp and mutter” from the dust.

The Talmud and Rabbinic Literature

Talmud (and its core component, the Mishnah) was explicitly compiled to preserve, organize, and transmit earlier Jewish traditions and practices—particularly those from the Second Temple period (roughly 516 BCE–70 CE) and before—that had been part of an oral tradition.  The Babylonian Talmud contains numerous discussions and folklore stories regarding spirits, shades (shedim), and the souls of the deceased.

• Lingering Souls: Some Talmudic passages suggest that a soul stays close to the physical body for up to three days after death.
• Encounters with the Dead: Tractates like Berachos and Chagigah record anecdotes where sages or ordinary people casually converse with the ghosts of deceased relatives or teachers, sometimes visiting graves to ask about lost items or matters in the afterlife.
• Diverse Views: Rabbinic authorities held mixed opinions. Some took stories of spirits literally, while others viewed them as allegorical, dreams, or folk superstitions rather than core theology.

Ancient Jewish literature directly links the restfulness of a soul to how a person died and whether they received a proper burial.

In Jewish tradition, an improper burial or a violent, premature death disrupts the soul’s natural transition to the afterlife, leaving it distressed or trapped near the physical world.

1. The Agony of the Unburied

In ancient Judaism, a proper burial (Kevurah) was a supreme religious duty. Leaving a body unburied was considered the ultimate indignity, capable of tormenting the deceased.

• The Reed Mat Ghost (Talmud, Berakhot 18b): In this famous passage, a man sleeps in a cemetery and hears the ghosts of two deceased women talking. One ghost invites the other to fly around the world to learn the future. The second ghost sadly replies, “I cannot, as I am buried in a mat of reeds.” Later rabbinic commentary explains that her cheap, improper burial delayed the decomposition of her body, keeping her soul painfully tethered to the grave and unable to rest.
• The Concept of Meit Mitzvah: Jewish law states that if a person finds an abandoned corpse with no one to bury it, they must stop whatever they are doing—even if they are a High Priest—to bury it immediately. This stems from the ancient belief that an unburied corpse defiles the land and that its soul is in a state of deep distress.

2. Tragic and Premature Deaths

Ancient texts and later Jewish mysticism teach that souls cut off violently “before their time” have a deeply altered experience in the afterlife.

• Screaming Blood: The Hebrew Bible references the spiritual residue of the wrongly murdered. In Genesis 4:10, after Cain murders Abel, God tells him, “The voice of your brother’s blood cries out to Me from the ground.” While not explicitly a phantom figure, the life-force (nefesh) of the wrongly killed is depicted as active, conscious, and demanding justice.
• Wandering Souls: Sages taught that a soul disconnected by sudden tragedy is “incomplete” because it was torn from its earthly purpose. According to teachings preserved by institutions like Ohr Somayach, these premature souls are highly prone to remaining in the physical world as ghosts.

3. Atonement Through Bad Burials

Interestingly, the Talmud takes the relationship between burial and the soul a step further by suggesting that a terrible burial can actually act as a punishment that purges sin. In Sanhedrin 47a, the rabbis discuss how an undignified burial (such as being eaten by animals or buried in a disgraceful manner) serves as an agonizing, final earthly atonement, allowing an otherwise wicked soul to ultimately enter the World to Come

In this regard, we seem to have ghost sightings in Paul that were later transformed into an apotheosis empty tomb story in the gospels, which makes sense with Jewish tradition forbidding contacting the dead.  In Chariton’s work, when Chaereas finds Callirhoe’s tomb empty, the initial confusion leads to speculation that she may have been translated or taken up into the divine realm like a goddess.

Conclusion

One of the difficulties secular readers of the bible have to deal with is the many risen Jesus appearance claims in Paul. But once we situate them in their ancient superstitious context there really isn’t any surprise at all.