This volume comprises a lecture course given by Martin Heidegger at the University of Freiburg in 1932.  It’s topic is the beginning of Western philosophy and deals with Being and beings.  What is Being?  The quote from Plato’s Sophist that appears at the beginning of Heidegger’s “Being and Time” is: “For you have evidently long been aware of this (what you properly mean when you use the expression ‘being’); but we who once believed we understood it have now become perplexed” (Sophist 244a).  So, Being was questionable in Plato’s time, and still in our time.

What did Homer say about Being and beings?  Under Homer’s understanding with beings as eonta, Homer applies the term eonta to “the Achaean’s encampment before Troy, the god’s wrath, the plague’s fury, funeral pyres, [and] the perplexity of the leaders’. Man too belongs to eonta.”  Something did not need to be an object to be a being, since a dream “is” just as much as a rock, is something rather than nothing.  What was the average Greek understanding of Being?  For one thing Being means presence and being present, and so in Plato’s Gorgias we read Socrates say: “as you call beautiful those in whom beauty is present?  Callicles: “I do.” Plato Gorgias: [497e].  How are we to understand beauty here?

  The Greeks understood Being verbally as presencing, and so Homer said that the gods don’t presence to everyone in their fullness (enargeis). So, for instance, a tourist might find Niagara Falls stunning, while the person living near it may encounter it as irritating noise pollution. In this way, “Houseness” may be presencing beautifully in the mansion, be merely present in the average house, and deficiently present in the dilapidated shack. Conversely, the next person may experience the mansion as gaudy or the shack as quaint, and so Protagoras says that man is the steward of presencing (man is the measure of all things: when we measure we allow something to stand for as what it always was but hidden). Beauty is the key here to see Being as presence/present/presencing, and so in Plato’s Gorgias in a fuller quote than above we read as the average, everyday Greek understanding of Being: “Socrates: Just observe: do you not call good people good owing to the presence of good things, [497e] as you call beautiful those in whom beauty is present? Callicles: I do.” Relative degrees of beauty are how things presence. Thus, Plato calls the beautiful, kala/ekphanestaton, “that which, as most of all and most purely shining from itself, shows the visible form and thus is unhidden” (Heidegger, 1998c [PA], Vol. 1, p. 78; also at 1979 [Nl], p. 80). Referring to Plato’s Phaedrus, Heidegger says that beauty is “what is most radiant and sparkling in the sensuous realm, in a way that, as such brilliance, it lets Being scintillate at the same time” (Heidegger, 1979 [Nl], p. 197). Consider Pindar’s usage of the notion of glimmering Gold, “‘goldea’ “So that we may hear more clearly this word and what it calls, let us recollect a poem of Pindar’s: Isthmians V. At the beginning of this ode the poet calls gold periosion panton, that which above all shines through everything, panta, shines through each thing present all around. The splendor of gold keeps and holds everything present in the unconcealedness of its appearing (Heidegger Poetry Language Thought, L, 201).”

An interesting passage is while Aristotle establishes the social nature of the person, he then turns around and says the theoria/contemplative life is better and in fact a kind of godliness (athanatizein). He then notes in the Politics only a beast or god delights in solitude – showing the tragic nature of the average human life: restlessness/boredom. There are going to be two kinds of presencing: restless transitory life, and the constancy of Theoria or the contemplative life.  Regarding the repose of the thinker, Horace describes how Bullatius’s boredom and restless horror loci (revulsion at where one is) woes (in Epistles I II) were countered by Philosophy, with the exercise of Logic (ratio) and Prudence (prudential) that brought about a “Calm Mind (aequus animus).”  “Aequus animus” is a Latin phrase that translates to “equitable mind” or “calm mind” in English. In ancient Roman philosophy, particularly in Stoicism, this term is used to describe a state of mental equanimity or tranquility. It refers to a mind that remains balanced and composed, regardless of external circumstances. The concept emphasizes maintaining inner peace and fairness in judgment, not being swayed by emotions or external pressures, which aligns with Stoic ideals of living in accordance with reason and virtue. This state of mind is seen as essential for achieving wisdom and virtue, as it allows one to respond to life’s challenges with clarity and fairness.  Thinkers are “at home/homely” in their thoughts while the rest of the people simply helplessly drift from one distraction to the next.  In this way of overcoming essential restlessness, Heidegger argues thinkers for the Greeks were seen as attuned to and in harmony with the unchanging eternal, thereby bringing calmness (e.g. contemplating the form of beauty which is not fleeting/changing but simply “is”), and notes “[t]herein resides the peculiar tendency of the accommodation of the temporality of human Dasein to the eternity of the world … This is the extreme position to which the Greeks carried human Dasein (Heidegger, 2003, 122).”  Plato contrasted the fixed stars with man’s erratic and disorderly thoughts and said man should strive for the constancy of the stars.  Democritus said euthymia, living calmly and steadily, was one of life’s goals.  Seneca talks of “a great, noble, and godlike thing; not to be shaken,” a phrase Seneca traces to Democritus

In ancient thought, the concept of a “tranquil mind” often refers to a state of inner peace, calmness, and serenity that is achieved through various philosophical and spiritual practices. Here’s a quick summary I found about how it appears across different cultures:

Ancient Greek Philosophy:

Stoicism: Philosophers like Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius emphasized the importance of tranquility (or ataraxia in Greek) as a state where one is free from disturbances and passions. They believed that tranquility comes from understanding what is within our control (our reactions and judgments) and what is not (external events). By focusing on what one can control, one achieves a serene state of mind.

Epicureanism: Epicurus taught that tranquility (ataraxia) could be achieved through the pursuit of pleasure, but not hedonistic pleasure; rather, the absence of pain and mental disturbance. This involves living a simple life, avoiding unnecessary desires, and fostering friendship, which leads to a calm and undisturbed mind.

Ancient Indian Thought:

Hinduism: In texts like the Bhagavad Gita, tranquility or peace of mind (shanti) is seen as a result of spiritual practice, detachment from the material world, and the realization of one’s true self (Atman). It involves meditation, yoga, and ethical living to achieve inner peace.

Buddhism:

The concept of tranquility is closely related to samatha meditation, aimed at calming the mind, reducing mental agitation, and achieving a state of mindfulness and peace. Nirvana, the ultimate goal, is described as a state of ultimate peace and liberation from suffering.

Ancient Chinese Philosophy:

Taoism: Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching suggests that tranquility comes from living in harmony with the Tao (the Way), which involves simplicity, naturalness, and non-action (wu wei). The tranquil mind here is one that flows with life’s changes without resistance.

Confucianism:

Although less focused on inner peace as an end in itself, tranquility in Confucian thought can be seen in the pursuit of harmony in relationships and society, leading to a balanced and calm state of mind through moral cultivation and social order.

Across these traditions, a tranquil mind is not just about emotional calm but involves intellectual clarity, moral integrity, and sometimes spiritual enlightenment. It’s about achieving a state where one’s inner life is not disturbed by external conditions, leading to a profound sense of peace and contentment.

Philosophy then is going to be a practice of improving the self and having a better quality of life. Given this background, next time I’ll get into Heidegger’s course proper.