WHERE WE ARE

I am arguing that the Passion Narrative in the Gospel of Luke is historically unreliable.

The Passion Narrative in Luke is found in Chapters 22 and 23 of the Gospel of Luke. I am beginning my examination Luke’s Passion Narrative with Chapter 23, which contains the following six parts:

• Part 1: Jesus Before Pilate (verses 1-5)
• Part 2: Jesus Before Herod (verses 6-12)
• Part 3: Jesus Sentenced to Death (verses 13-25)
• Part 4: Crucifixion of Jesus (verses 26-43)
• Part 5: Death of Jesus (verses 44-49)
• Part 6: Burial of Jesus (verses 50-56)

In Part 1 of this series, I argued that the opening section of Chapter 23 (Jesus Before Pilate) is historically unreliable.

In Part 2 of this series, I argued that the second section of Chapter 23 (Jesus Before Herod) is also historically unreliable.

In Part 3 of this series, I argued that the third section of Chapter 23 (Jesus Sentenced to Death) is also historically unreliable.

In this current post, I will argue that the fourth section of Chapter 23 (Crucifixion of Jesus) is also historically unreliable.

PART 4: CRUCIFIXION OF JESUS (LUKE 23:26-43)

Of course, all eight of the previously stated general reasons for doubting the historical reliability of the synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) apply to Chapter 23 of the Gospel of Luke (see Part 3 of this series for those points). Also, the general reason for doubting the historical reliability of the Gospel of Luke (namely that the first two chapters of Luke present a FICTIONAL story about the birth of Jesus, and that the final chapter of Luke presents FICTIONAL stories about appearances of the risen Jesus in Jerusalem) is an additional good reason for doubting the historical reliability of the other Chapters in the Gospel of Luke.

Furthermore, we have examined the first three sections of Chapter 23 of the Gospel of Luke, and found that each of those sections was historically unreliable. Thus, we now have good reason to doubt the historical reliability of the fourth section of Chapter 23 (on the Crucifixion of Jesus) even before we examine the specific content of this section.

Here is Part 4 of Chapter 23 of the Gospel of Luke (Crucifixion of Jesus):

26 As they led him away, they seized a man, Simon of Cyrene, who was coming from the country, and they laid the cross on him and made him carry it behind Jesus. 27 A great number of the people followed him, and among them were women who were beating their breasts and wailing for him. 28 But Jesus turned to them and said, “Daughters of Jerusalem, do not weep for me, but weep for yourselves and for your children. 29 For the days are surely coming when they will say, ‘Blessed are the barren, and the wombs that never bore, and the breasts that never nursed.’ 30 Then they will begin to say to the mountains, ‘Fall on us,’ and to the hills, ‘Cover us.’ 31 For if they do this when the wood is green, what will happen when it is dry?”

32 Two others also, who were criminals, were led away to be put to death with him. 33 When they came to the place that is called The Skull, they crucified Jesus there with the criminals, one on his right and one on his left. [[34 Then Jesus said, “Father, forgive them, for they do not know what they are doing.”]][f] And they cast lots to divide his clothing. 35 And the people stood by watching, but the leaders scoffed at him, saying, “He saved others; let him save himself if he is the Messiah of God, his chosen one!” 36 The soldiers also mocked him, coming up and offering him sour wine 37 and saying, “If you are the King of the Jews, save yourself!” 38 There was also an inscription over him, “This is the King of the Jews.”

39 One of the criminals who were hanged there kept deriding him and saying, “Are you not the Messiah? Save yourself and us!” 40 But the other rebuked him, saying, “Do you not fear God, since you are under the same sentence of condemnation? 41 And we indeed have been condemned justly, for we are getting what we deserve for our deeds, but this man has done nothing wrong.” 42 Then he said, “Jesus, remember me when you come in your kingdom.” 43 He replied, “Truly I tell you, today you will be with me in paradise.”

[f] 23.34 Other ancient authorities lack the sentence Then Jesus . . . what they are doing

Luke 23:26-43, New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition

The first verse in this passage has at least three historical problems.

First, the “they” in the phrase “As they led him away…” refers to the Jewish leaders and Jewish crowd, based on the verses that immediately precede verse 26:

13 Pilate then called together the chief priests, the leaders, and the people 14 and said to them, “You brought me this man as one who was inciting the people, and here I have examined him in your presence and have not found this man guilty of any of your charges against him. 15 Neither has Herod, for he sent him back to us. Indeed, he has done nothing to deserve death. 16 I will therefore have him flogged and release him.”

18 Then they all shouted out together, “Away with this fellow! Release Barabbas for us!” 19 (This was a man who had been put in prison for an insurrection that had taken place in the city and for murder.) 20 Pilate, wanting to release Jesus, addressed them again, 21 but they kept shouting, “Crucify, crucify him!” 22 A third time he said to them, “Why, what evil has he done? I have found in him no ground for the sentence of death; I will therefore have him flogged and then release him.” 23 But they kept urgently demanding with loud shouts that he should be crucified, and their voices prevailed. 24 So Pilate gave his verdict that their demand should be granted.

Luke 23:13-24, New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition, emphasis added

The terms “them”, “they”, and “their” in the previous verses all have the same referent:

• In verse 14, “them” clearly refers to “the chief priests, the leaders, and the people“.
• In verse 18, “they” clearly also refers to “the chief priests, the leaders, and the people“.
• In verse 20, “them” clearly also refers to “the chief priests, the leaders, and the people“.
• In verse 21, “they” clearly also refers to “the chief priests, the leaders, and the people“.
• In verse 22, “them” clearly also refers to “the chief priests, the leaders, and the people“.
• In verse 23, “they” and “their” clearly also refer to “the chief priests, the leaders, and the people“.
• In verse 24, “their” clearly also refers to “the chief priests, the leaders, and the people“.

Thus, it is very clear that the term “they” in verse 26 also refers to “the chief priests, the leaders, and the people”.

A serious historical problem with verse 26 is that it implies that Jesus was led away from his trial before the Roman governor Pilate by the Jewish leaders and a Jewish crowd. But this contradicts the Gospel of Mark:

¹⁵ So Pilate, wishing to satisfy the crowd, released Barabbas for them, and after flogging Jesus he handed him over to be crucified.

16 Then the soldiers led him into the courtyard of the palace (that is, the governor’s headquarters), and they called together the whole cohort. 17 And they clothed him in a purple cloak, and after twisting some thorns into a crown they put it on him. 18 And they began saluting him, “Hail, King of the Jews!” 19 They struck his head with a reed, spat upon him, and knelt down in homage to him. 20 After mocking him, they stripped him of the purple cloak and put his own clothes on him. Then they led him out to crucify him.

Mark 15:15-20, New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition

According to the Gospel of Mark, Pilate “handed him [Jesus] over to be crucified” but NOT to “the crowd” but to “the soldiers” (verse 16). These were ROMAN soldiers because in verse 20 “they led him out to crucify him” and it was clearly ROMAN soldiers who crucified Jesus. Therefore, the Gospel of Luke, in having Pilate hand Jesus over to the Jewish leaders and the Jewish crowd, contradicts the Gospel of Mark, which has Pilate hand Jesus over to his ROMAN soldiers.

The Gospel of Luke also contradicts the Gospel of Matthew, because Matthew agrees with Mark on this point:

26 So he released Barabbas for them, and after flogging Jesus he handed him over to be crucified.
27 Then the soldiers of the governor took Jesus into the governor’s headquarters, and they gathered the whole cohort around him. 28 They stripped him and put a scarlet robe on him, 29 and after twisting some thorns into a crown they put it on his head. They put a reed in his right hand and knelt before him and mocked him, saying, “Hail, King of the Jews!” 30 They spat on him and took the reed and struck him on the head. 31 After mocking him, they stripped him of the robe and put his own clothes on him. Then they led him away to crucify him.

Matthew 27:26-31, New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition

In the Gospel of Matthew, Pilate hands Jesus over to his Roman soldiers, NOT to the Jewish leaders or the Jewish crowd.

I don’t think any NT or Jesus scholar believes Luke’s claim that Pilate handed Jesus over to the Jewish leaders and the Jewish crowd to be crucified. Crucifixion was a Roman punishment inflicted by Roman soldiers. Luke 23:26 is thus FICTIONAL. It makes a FALSE historical claim for the ideological purpose of shifting blame for the execution of Jesus from the Roman governor Pilate to the Jewish leaders and the Jewish people.

There is further evidence that Luke 23:26 implies that Pilate handed Jesus over to Jewish leaders and the Jewish crowd to be crucified. In Chapter 24 of the Gospel of Luke, two followers of Jesus say that Jesus was crucified by Jewish leaders in Jerusalem:

…our chief priests and leaders handed him over to be condemned to death and crucified him.

Luke 24:20, New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition (emphasis added)

There is no mention here of the Roman governor Pilate nor of any Roman soldiers.

If one looks at the preaching of Peter and in Acts, the second volume written by the author of the Gospel of Luke, one finds a number of passages that similarly emphasize the guilt of Jewish leaders and Jewish people in Jesus’ execution by suggesting that Jesus was crucified by Jews:

12 When Peter saw it, he addressed the people, “Fellow Israelites, …14 But you rejected the holy and righteous one and asked to have a murderer given to you, 15 and you killed the author of life, whom God raised from the dead. To this we are witnesses.

Acts 3:12 & 14-15, New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition (emphasis added)

10 let it be known to all of you [Jewish leaders in Jerusalem], and to all the people of Israel, that this man is standing before you in good health by the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, whom you crucified, whom God raised from the dead.

Acts 4:10, New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition (emphasis added)

36 You know the message he [God] sent to the people of Israel, preaching peace by Jesus Christ…39 We are witnesses to all that he [Jesus] did both in Judea and in Jerusalem. They put him to death by hanging him on a tree…

Acts 10:36 & 39, New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition (emphasis added)

Luke also has Stephen, the first Christian martyr, give a speech in which Stephen tells his Jewish audience that they murdered Jesus:

51 “You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears, you are forever opposing the Holy Spirit, just as your ancestors used to do. 52 Which of the prophets did your ancestors not persecute? They killed those who foretold the coming of the Righteous One [i.e. Jesus the Messiah], and now you have become his betrayers and murderers.

Acts 7:51-52, New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition (emphasis added)

Although Luke shows awareness of the involvement of the Roman governor Pilate and of Roman soldiers in the execution of Jesus, Luke typically focuses the blame for Jesus’ death directly on Jewish leaders and Jewish people.

A second problem with verse 26 is the reference to Simon of Cyrene carrying the cross for Jesus. Some Jesus scholars judge that Simon of Cyrene is a FICTIONAL CHARACTER introduced to produce a contrast between Simon, one of the twelve disciples of Jesus, who denied knowing Jesus when Jesus was under arrest, and Simon, a man who carried Jesus’ cross, thus being an example of a faithful follower of Jesus. Jesus had supposedly previously used the metaphor of carrying the cross, as a way of indicating that truly following him would require personal sacrifices.

The author of the Gospel of Luke did not invent Simon of Cyrene. This name and event was taken from the Gospel of Mark:

21 They compelled a passer-by, who was coming in from the country, to carry his cross; it was Simon of Cyrene, the father of Alexander and Rufus.

Mark 15:21, New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition

Here is a comment about this verse in Mark from the scholars of the Jesus Seminar:

Simon of Cyrene. Mark adds this odd bit of detail for his own narrative purposes, which have to do with another person named Simon. Mark has depicted Simon Peter’s denial in three parts: a prediction (14:27-31); Peter following Jesus to a trial but at a distance (14:53-54); the denial with an oath that he was not a disciple of Jesus (14:66-72). To lavish so much narrative space on this Simon evidently meant a great deal to Mark. Earlier, Jesus had advised his disciples that if they wanted to be his followers, they had to deny themselves, take up their crosses, and come after him (Mark 8:34). Since Simon Peter did not follow Jesus’ instructions–he deserted Jesus along with the others when Jesus was arrested–Mark has another Simon do so. The other details have no historical value; they are included merely to give the scene plausibility. Writers of fiction scatter references to specific persons, places, and dates to enhance believability. Black is the correct color for this piece of Markan fiction.

The Acts of Jesus by Robert Funk and The Jesus Seminar, p.154-155

A third problem with verse 26 is that even if there was an actual Simon of Cyrene, it is not clear that anyone carried the cross for Jesus. The Jesus scholar Gerd Ludemann believes that Simon of Cyrene was an historical person, but rejects the claim that Simon carried the cross of Jesus (Jesus After 2000 Years, p. 107).

Also, the Gospel of John contradicts Matthew, Mark, and Luke on this point, insisting that:

17 and carrying the cross by himself he [Jesus] went out to what is called the Place of the Skull, which in Hebrew is called Golgotha. 

John 19:17, New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition (emphasis added)

The contradiction between Luke and John is not very significant to me, because I view the Gospel of John as being the most historically unreliable of the four gospels. However, Christian apologists and most Christian believers, view the Gospel of John as providing a historically reliable account of the life, ministry, teachings, crucifixion, and burial of Jesus. From that point of view, the contradiction between the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of John about whether somebody else carried the cross of Jesus casts serious doubt on Luke’s claim that someone else carried the cross of Jesus.

So verse 26 of Chapter 23 of the Gospel of Luke is historically unreliable because Pilate did NOT hand Jesus over to the Jewish leaders and Jewish crowd to be crucified by them, and because it is doubtful that Simon of Cyrene existed, and because it is doubtful that somebody other than Jesus carried Jesus’ cross to the crucifixion site.

In the next post in this series, I will argue that verses 27 to 43 (the rest of Part 4) of Chapter 23 of the Gospel of Luke are also historically unreliable.